October 27: Five Historic Turning Points
Exploring political arguments, presidential legacies, and moments that redefined the world.
1787 – The Federalist Papers First Published
The first of 85 essays, now known as The Federalist Papers, was published in a New York City newspaper. Writing under the pseudonym “Publius,” Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay authored these articles to persuade New Yorkers to ratify the newly proposed United States Constitution. This first essay, Federalist No. 1, was written by Hamilton and laid out the purpose of the series: to debate the merits of the new government. It argued that the American people had the unique opportunity to create a government based on “reflection and choice” rather than “accident and force.”
Historical Context
The Constitution had been signed just weeks earlier, but its ratification was far from certain. Powerful anti-Federalist voices argued it created a central government that was too powerful and lacked a Bill of Rights. New York was a large, influential state, and its rejection of the Constitution could have doomed the new nation.
Significance
The Federalist Papers are considered one of the most important works of political philosophy in American history. They provided a detailed explanation and defense of the Constitution’s principles, shaping our understanding of the framers’ intent. They were instrumental in securing ratification in New York and other states and remain the most cited source for interpreting the Constitution today.
1858 – Birth of Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born into a wealthy family in New York City. A sickly child who suffered from severe asthma, he famously transformed himself through a “strenuous life” of physical exercise and intellectual pursuit. His dynamic career saw him serve as NYC Police Commissioner, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, and Governor of New York. He became a national hero after his famous charge up San Juan Hill with the Rough Riders during the Spanish American War. This fame propelled him to the vice presidency.
Historical Context
Roosevelt was born in the Gilded Age, a time of rapid industrialization, massive wealth inequality, and corporate monopolies. His political career would be defined by his attempts to reform and regulate this new American landscape, a major departure from the laissez faire attitudes of the era.
Significance
After President William McKinley’s assassination in 1901, Roosevelt became the 26th and youngest president in US history. He was a transformative leader whose “Square Deal” domestic policies championed consumer protection (Pure Food and Drug Act) and conservation, establishing numerous national parks. He also wielded American power abroad, building the Panama Canal and winning a Nobel Peace Prize.
1904 – New York City’s First Subway Opens
The Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT), New York City’s first official subway line, opened to the public. On its inaugural run, Mayor George B. McClellan Jr. famously took the controls of the first train, which was filled with city officials and dignitaries. That evening, the subway opened to the general public, and over 100,000 people paid a nickel to ride the new system. The first line ran 9.1 miles, from City Hall in lower Manhattan to 145th Street in Harlem, featuring 28 stations.
Historical Context
By 1900, New York City was choking on its own growth. Its streets were gridlocked with horse drawn carriages, and elevated trains were noisy and blotted out the sun. A solution was needed to move millions of people quickly and efficiently. The construction of the subway was a massive and dangerous engineering feat, requiring the “cut and cover” method of digging up major city avenues.
Significance
The opening of the subway was a revolutionary moment in urban history. It physically and socially transformed New York City, allowing the population to spread out from the crowded Lower East Side and sparking the development of the outer boroughs. It became the backbone of the modern metropolis, shaping its economy, culture, and geography.
1936 – Wallis Simpson is Granted a Divorce
In a courtroom in Ipswich, England, American socialite Wallis Simpson was granted a preliminary decree of divorce from her second husband, Ernest Simpson. The proceedings were brief, based on evidence of her husband’s adultery. While a private legal matter on the surface, this event had massive constitutional implications for the British Empire. Mrs. Simpson was the companion of King Edward VIII, who had taken the throne in January of that year.
Historical Context
King Edward VIII was deeply in love with Mrs. Simpson and was fully intent on marrying her. However, as King, he was also the head of the Church of England, which did not permit a person to remarry if their divorced spouse was still living. A marriage to a twice divorced American was seen as politically, religiously, and morally unacceptable by the British government and the public.
Significance
This divorce decree started the clock on a constitutional crisis. The government, led by Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, made it clear they would resign if the King proceeded with the marriage. Faced with an impossible choice between the crown and “the woman I love,” Edward VIII chose to abdicate the throne just weeks later, in December 1936. This shocking decision passed the crown to his younger brother, who became King George VI, the father of Queen Elizabeth II.
1962 – “Black Saturday” of the Cuban Missile Crisis
The Cuban Missile Crisis, a 13 day standoff between the US and the Soviet Union over nuclear missiles in Cuba, reached its most dangerous day. Known as “Black Saturday,” this day saw a series of escalating events that brought the world to the absolute brink of nuclear war. An American U-2 spy plane, piloted by Major Rudolf Anderson, was shot down over Cuba by a Soviet supplied surface to air missile, killing the pilot. Simultaneously, another U-2 accidentally strayed into Soviet airspace, nearly triggering a military response.
Historical Context
For nearly two weeks, President John F. Kennedy and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev had been locked in a tense nuclear stalemate. The US had established a naval “quarantine” of Cuba, and military forces on both sides were at their highest alert (DEFCON 2), one step short of all out war.
Significance
The shooting down of the U2 plane was a terrifying escalation. Kennedy’s advisors pressured him to retaliate with an air strike, a move that would have almost certainly triggered a full scale nuclear exchange. Instead, Kennedy resisted and chose diplomacy, agreeing to a secret deal. The next day, Khrushchev announced the withdrawal of the missiles. Black Saturday is remembered as the single most dangerous moment of the Cold War, the day the world narrowly averted armageddon.
